The Positive Outcomes of Wolf Reintroduction in the United States

This week is “Wolf Awareness Week” and it is time to stand up for Wolves! Canis Lupis were once among the most widely distributed wild mammal in North America. In recent years we have seen those numbers plummet! This is why Mr. Simmons and his team travel to the wilds of North America to protect wolves in the wild. His team, called WildGuard, go into eh wilds of North America to protect wolves. This grueling commitment to balance our planet and protecting the wolf pushes them to the brink at times. This dedication to the wolf and future generations is something that he and his team strive for every year so that their impact can be felt for generations..

Previously present in all US states save Hawaii, gray wolves were nearly driven to extinction in the country through a century-long, systematic eradication campaign by private landowners and the federal government. Colonists’ tales of demonic and bloodthirsty wolves spurred these efforts, as well as the misbelief that they were vermin that would decimate wildlife and livestock. Today, misinformation and negative stereotypes persist, often enabling politics and special interests to take precedence over science in wolf management and conservation. However, since they began in the 1990s, wolf recovery efforts in the contiguous United States have generated numerous societal and ecological benefits.

Many narratives about wolves disregard the reality of their disposition and ecological role as intelligent, family-oriented animals that help secure ecosystem balance. They serve as keystone species in many biological communities, meaning that these ecosystems rely on them to maintain stability and biodiversity. Ecological studies in Yellowstone National Park have helped affirm this relationship. The eradication of wolves from the park in 1926 led to significant ecosystem alterations and degradation.

A growing body of evidence supports the connection between wolf reintroduction and ecological improvements in Yellowstone, such as higher biodiversity and greater ecosystem balance. For instance, wolves provided population control for elk, whose overabundant numbers have decimated vegetation and stunted regrowth. A 2020 Oregon State University (OSU) study linked the suppression of elk to the recovery of tall willows. In 2018 OSU scientists released research results that tied the return of wolves and cougars to greater stream function and structure through repopulated vegetation along stream banks.

In addition to rebalancing ecosystems, wolves have enhanced the herd health and resilience of elk, moose, and other preferred prey in many areas. Wolves rarely kill more than they can eat and primarily target sick and aging members of the herd, which removes these animals from the breeding pool and increases the availability of food for younger, reproductively active individuals. Furthermore, a University of California, Santa Cruz study in 2020 reported changes in hunting behavior following droughts that favor elk reproduction. During years of lower vegetation regrowth, wolves’ preferred prey shifts from female to male elk. Male elk generally enter winter in a weakened state due to eating less and burning more calories in the fall, and food scarcity exacerbates this. With wolves primarily hunting these malnourished males, more females can reproduce.

Another benefit of wolf reintroduction is the management of the coyote population. Coyotes historically inhabited deserts and prairies in Central and Western North America, but their range widely expanded due to wolf elimination, as well as largescale logging and agricultural developments in the 1900s. Wolves regard coyotes as competition and will drive off or kill them if they come too close or scavenge their kills.

According to research, natural means of limiting coyote populations are more effective than human-led lethal control. Higher reproduction rates often follow extensive coyote culling by humans, producing counterproductive results in the form of larger litter sizes. Population reduction also increases food availability for the remaining coyotes, allowing mothers to birth healthier pups. Additionally, coyote removal allows immigrating juveniles to move into recently unoccupied territory. Natural control of the coyote population via the reintroduction of wolves does not lead to these issues.

Wolf reintroduction also generates local and regional economic benefits. Financial reports and national park surveys show that wolves have boosted tourism and increased visitation to natural parks. In 1992 the environmental impact statement compiled as part of the wolf recovery plan estimated an annual net gain of $19 million from wolf-driven tourism in the greater Yellowstone area, and data from visitor surveys between 2004 and 2006 credited wolves with an annual average of $35 million in tourism expenditures. This spending included purchases at businesses such as hotels and restaurants.

The Importance of Wolves for Ecosystem Health and Stability

The wolf is one of the most misunderstood animals in North America, in part due to a history of persecution and an association with villainy and savagery that dates to colonial times. Myths about wolves, such as strict social hierarchies and surplus killing activity, continue to circulate. However, biologists today describe wolves as highly social and cooperative creatures with social structures often compared to those of humans. Wild wolves live in close-knit families that typically include a breeding pair and their offspring, and all pack members help care for pups, a behavior observed in only 2 percent of mammals. Ecological studies have also concluded that wolves play a critical role in maintaining balance and stability in their native ecosystems.

Scientists now understand natural ecosystems as interconnected biological communities that are directly affected by the organisms present and the relationships among them. One determining factor in ecosystem health is the presence of keystone species, which are organisms whose ecological role can be filled by few or no other species. Their absence disrupts the ecosystem, with ramifications that can range from radical alteration to complete collapse. The wolf is a keystone species in many regions with wild herds of ungulates, their preferred prey.

Wolves provide population control for various species of ungulates, which include large hooved mammals such as elk, deer, and moose. Management of these herbivores’ numbers is essential for maintaining the ecosystem. When herds become overabundant, their subsequent overgrazing of local vegetation leads to impeded plant regrowth. This effect materialized in wilderness areas of Northwest America following the systematic eradication of wolves in the country by settlers during the 1900s. The elk population exploded and ravaged plant life, including immature trees. Biological diversity also dropped due to insufficient vegetation for beavers and birds.

Long-term biodiversity loss and keystone species exclusion can lead to stark consequences, including irrevocable ecosystem damage and alterations. Yellowstone National Park is perhaps the most notorious example of this. After humans eliminated wolves in the area, the ecosystem underwent a dramatic transformation. Elk and deer multiplied and stripped vegetation from highlands and along streams, which led to stream erosion, water-temperature changes, fewer materials for beavers to construct dams, and fewer nesting places for birds. Coyote populations also increased in the absence of wolves, which typically exhibit territorial aggression towards coyotes. This increase in coyote populations negatively impacted foxes, badgers, and other smaller carnivores that compete with them for food.

More recently, events in Michigan’s Isle Royale National Park demonstrated how a lack of wolf predation on ungulates can compromise an ecosystem’s ability to sustain rising populations and trigger food-availability decline. Chronic inbreeding and low genetic diversity reduced the island’s wolf population to only two individuals by 2016, which enabled moose numbers to surge over the next five years at a pace too rapid for plant life to replenish. Food scarcity has since continued to worsen, and moose are starving as a result. In 2021 researchers found the remains of 13 moose who starved to death, compared to the one or two in years with abundant vegetation.

Evidence of wolves’ ecological importance sparked the launch of recovery programs in Yellowstone and Isle Royale in 1995 and 2018, respectively. According to researchers, confirmed litters of pups in 2021 from wolves released on Isle Royale offer hope for ecological recovery on the island. In Yellowstone, wolf reintroduction facilitated ecological stabilization. One 2020 Oregon State University (OSU) study tied wolf-related elk suppression to tall willow recovery in the park, and another OSU study in 2018 found that the return of wolves and cougars are improving the structure and function of streams. Researchers have also documented greater ecological diversity in the 25 years since wolf reintroduction. While scientists believe that complete reversal of the damage to Yellowstone’s ecosystem is likely impossible, many credit the wolf with helping prevent an eventual collapse.

What You Need to Know about Swimming with Sharks

With Hollywood’s portrayal of sharks as evil and vicious predators, many people believe that swimming with sharks is unavoidably dangerous. However, if practiced in the right conditions and with the help of professionals, even people who are inexperienced may find swimming with sharks to be an exciting way to connect with nature. Mr. Simmons our founder and his team swim with the Great Whites every September just off the coast of San Fransisco. It gives the team another chance to be up close and understand an Apex Predator in its natural environment.

Although there are over 350 species of sharks, only some of them have attacked humans unprovoked. According to Ocean Ramsey, who cofounded One Ocean Diving, sharks choose not to attack when they are not starving or competing with each other. During an interview, Ramsey said that humans kill 70 million to 100 million sharks each year for their fins, while fewer than 10 human fatalities are caused by sharks globally in the same period.

When swimming with sharks and not protected by a cage, it is essential to stay calm, because sudden movements may provoke them. Before entering the water, research sharks and how to act around them for your and the shark’s safety. It is also necessary to choose a responsible dive operator that ensures safe processes for you and the shark. Moreover, you should never go without a buddy.

There are several places one can scuba dive, snorkel, or cage dive with sharks. For example, on Oahu, Hawaii, there are snorkeling tours where it is possible to cage dive with some of the most dangerous sharks in the region; the metal cage is safe, and it floats at the surface of the water. Tiger sharks, Galapagos sharks, sandbar sharks, and scalloped hammerhead sharks can all be found on Oahu, and they may circle the cage, sometimes just inches from the bars. There are also cage-free tours on Oahu, where divers can swim with some of these sharks.

Another way to encounter dangerous shark species, such as the great white, is by visiting Port Lincoln in Australia. There, some shark tourism companies allow certified divers to spend nearly an hour on the ocean’s bottom inside a steel cage. This enables divers to look at the great whites in their natural territory.

If you prefer to swim without a cage, consider Isla Mujeres in Mexico, where you can snorkel with the largest fish in the world, the whale shark. These sharks are entirely safe to be around, and they stay near the water’s surface, so there is no need for deep diving. Whale sharks visit Isla Mujeres from June to August.

Belize is a travel-worthy spot for those who want to safely swim with sharks. Home to nurse sharks, the crystal-clear waters also contain lively coral reefs that provide an intense snorkeling experience. Another tourist location with shark swimming opportunities is the remote Tuamotu Atolls, a location in French Polynesia with clear waters and hundreds of gray reef sharks. Scuba divers can hire dive boat operators to guide them to the east side of Tetamanu Pass, where they can sit on the ocean’s bottom watching marine wildlife.

Nassau, in the Bahamas, is one of the world’s most famous places to swim with sharks. The sea is home to several shark species, such as tiger sharks, Caribbean reef sharks, lemon sharks, and oceanic whitetip sharks. In Nassau, there are professional shark feeders who offer cage-free tours for certified scuba divers. The shark feeding guide wears chainmail to set up a bait box, which attracts Caribbean reef sharks to the area. This species is very large but tends to be indifferent to people.

The Canidae Family in North America

The Canidae family encompasses a diverse group of primarily carnivorous mammals–34 or 35 species, depending on the source consulted. There are three subfamilies within the Canidae family: Borophaginae, Hesperocyoninae, and Caninae. However, the two first are extinct, leaving only living species of the Caninae subfamily, divided into four genera: the extinct Leptocyon, Urocyon, Canis, and Vulpes.

The various species of the Canidae family, whose members are called canids, present a similar basic form. The skull’s muzzle portion is more elongated than the cat family’s, for instance, and they have bushy tails with a pelage that varies with the season. Canids use their noses constantly, either for finding food and detecting predators or for temperature control. In addition, some members of the Canidae family howl to intimidate predators and communicate with other pack members.

Canids inhabit several environments across temperate and tropical parts of the world. They are native to every continent except for Australia and Antarctica. In North America, the Caninae family is widespread in all three extant genera: Canis, Vulpes, and Urocyon.

Canis is the most prominent genus of the Canidae family, with multiple species and subspecies. In North American wildernesses, common species include coyotes, gray wolves, and red wolves, as well as the domesticated dog, a wolf subspecies named Canis lupus familiaris. Coyotes live in the forest, desert, grassland, and shrubland, and their size varies from 39 to 53 inches long in addition to 16 inches of tail. The coyote diet is omnivorous, as this species feeds on small and large mammals, insects, and fruit. Protecting them is the mission of Predator Healing Project and its founder, Matthew Simmons. As they have come under attack as of late, Mr. Simmons and his team are active in protecting this national treasure.

When it comes to wolves, both red and gray wolves exist in North America. The gray wolf is a carnivore that preys on beavers, deer, bison, elk, birds, fish, and other types of meat. These wolves live in varied habitats, such as forests, tundra, grasslands, mountains, and deserts, with a life span of six to 13 years in the wild. The red wolf is exclusively found in the southeastern regions of the United States, manifesting a genetic combination between coyotes and wolves. Unfortunately, this species was extinct by 1980, but in 1987, it was reintroduced by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service.

The Vulpes genus of the Caninae subfamily comprises what are known as true foxes. Members of the Vulpes genus are smaller than their relatives, and have a flatter skull and a more prolonged and bushier tail. In North America, it is possible to find arctic foxes, red foxes, swift foxes, and kit foxes.

Red foxes are the most widespread Vulpes species globally, and they feature a light-yellow to red body, with a white underbody and dark legs. Swift foxes, on the other hand, are only found in North America’s western grasslands. They have light orange-tan fur and are the size of a domesticated cat, very similar to the kit fox.

With large ears and a small body, the kit fox is found in arid areas across North America, specifically in Colorado, Oregon, Nevada, California, Utah, New Mexico, and Texas in the US, as well as in Mexico. Meanwhile, arctic foxes are native to the polar regions and exist in northern Canada and Alaska. Their fur is white and thick, with seasonal camouflage for the summer. They must endure temperatures between 160 and 180 degrees Fahrenheit.

Lastly, both species within the genus Urocyon–gray foxes and island gray foxes–exist in North America. The gray fox measures 21 to 26 inches long, with an additional 11 to 17 inches of tail. It lives in the forests and shrublands of the southern half of North America and is mainly distinguished from other canids by its grizzled upper parts, its strong neck, and the black stripe down its tail.

Interestingly, the island gray fox is only found in six of the eight Channel Islands of California. Each of the six subspecies of the island gray fox is unique to the island where it lives. These foxes are docile, and many have been domesticated, used for their pelts or as pest control.

Predation and Prey Defense – An Overview

According to the Encyclopedia of Ecology, predation is the ecological process whereby a transference of energy occurs between two living animals. Predation is based on the behavior of a predator–an animal that occupies the upper levels of the food chain–that captures its prey and kills it prior to eating it.

Some commonly known predators are lions and wolves, but other smaller animals can also be predators–for example, ladybugs, which feed on tiny insects called aphids. While some predators, like crows and bears, eat a mixed diet of plants and other animals, other predators, such as lizards, frogs, and most species of wild cats, consume diets that consist almost solely of animals.

Predation is crucial to keep the environment stable and control prey populations. As an interaction that benefits one side and harms the other, predation is characterized by animals having the ability first to find their prey and then to capture it. At the same time, potential prey is evolutionarily equipped with a system of defense against predators.

Predators have evolved naturally for detecting, catching, killing, and digesting prey. Some have developed adaptations such as increased speed, sharp claws, agility, and a keen sense of hearing, smell, and vision. For example, predatory birds have excellent eyesight and, in the case of owls, hearing. When it comes to speed, falcons are the fastest fliers in the animal kingdom, while cheetahs are the world’s fastest runners.

On the other hand, some antipredator adaptations commonly seen in potential prey are mechanisms that help them detect their predators and let others from their species know there is danger nearby. Additionally, some prey species avoid being seen by predators using their bodies’ coloration and morphological traits. For example, many animals minimize visual cues and noise production that a predator can use to detect their location: crickets and frogs tend to stop singing, and animals that have evolved camouflage coloration stay quiet when another creature approaches.

Animals that camouflage themselves resemble something else in their environment. Moths, a typical prey for birds, tend to look like the bark of the trees where they rest. Walking sticks pretend to be an extension of the twigs they typically occupy. Snowshoe hares have brown fur in the summer, which changes to white in the winter, when their environment is covered with snow.

Many prey species have other lines of defense against predators in case they are seen. Besides camouflaging, some animals may synthesize toxins or accumulate them from their environment, so that when a predator tries to eat them, it will be poisoned or intoxicated. For instance, monarch butterflies carry toxins from the plants they inhabit as larvae inside their bodies; when birds try to eat a monarch, they vomit and learn to avoid this species in the future.

Additionally, when detected by a predator, prey will try to escape if they are fast runners, fliers, or swimmers. Even if caught, the prey will likely fight back or make it difficult for the predator to eat or bite them. In the latter case, prey may make themselves larger if threatened, as is the case with pufferfish, making it more difficult or even impossible for the predator to ingest them.

A History of Animal Rights Activism in America

The animal rights movement has developed over thousands of years, and activists advocating for animal rights have gradually succeeded in impacting national and international policy change. Modern American animal activism made its first legislative impact in 1641, when regulations addressing animal cruelty were included in the Massachusetts Body of Liberties. Clause 92 banned the exercise of “tirranny or crueltie” towards animals.

Almost 200 years later, Henry Bergh founded the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) in 1866. Bergh aimed to champion animal rights and grant animals legal protection from abuse. The ASPCA focused on animal rescue initiatives such as ambulance services for injured horses.

Over time, the ASPCA contributed to the formulation and enforcement of federal laws that protect animal rights. In 1873, the United States government passed a law guaranteeing food and water provisions to all shipped animals.

The ASPCA also supported the Animal Welfare Act of 1966. The act remains the only federal law regulating animal treatment in research, transport, and exhibition. It states that the rights of all animals that are commercially bred or transported, used in research experiments, or exhibited to the public are protected according to the act’s minimum standards of care and treatment.

In 1979, a group of animal law attorneys collaborated to establish a fund for animal activism. The Animal Legal Defense Fund (ALDF) promotes animal rights by filing lawsuits against animal abusers and supporting animal protection laws. Soon after the establishment of the ALDF, one of the most famous animal rights organizations was born. People for Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) was founded in 1980. PETA’s mission is to defend animal rights in four main fields: factory farming, clothing trade, laboratory research, and entertainment.

Animal rights in these four areas gained momentum in subsequent decades. For example, in the 1980s, the Farm Animal Rights Movement organized annual events to raise awareness about mistreatment of farm animals. The movement established World Day for Farmed Animals, as well as the Great American MeatOut annual event.

The impact of animal activism reached laboratories in schools and cosmetics companies, too. In 1987, a high school student refused to participate in a frog dissection, sparking animal rights debates on a national scale. By the 1990s, major makeup brands such as Avon and Revlon stopped testing their products on animals.

The 21st century marked a new era for animal rights. Clothing chains such as Forever 21 decided to halt the sale of all fur products. Anti-fur legislation also came into effect, with California becoming the first state to prohibit the manufacture or sale of new fur products.

In the entertainment industry, a shocking death at SeaWorld shed light on animal rights. After trainer Dawn Brancheau died as a result of a killer whale attack, SeaWorld reviewed its animal treatment standards and breeding programs. In 2016, SeaWorld permanently cancelled its orca shows.

The animal rights movement has made many legislative leaps over the years, but it has also changed individual diets and lifestyles. Veganism in the United States has increased by 500 percent since 2014, and the sale of plant-based food products spiked by 11 percent in a single year. In 2021, Plant Power Fast Food, a vegan food chain offering 100 percent plant-based meals, secured more than $7 million to expand its branches across the United States.

The History of the Gray Wolf in Yellowstone National Park

Early in the 20th century, as part of an effort to reduce the presence of predatory species, officials at Yellowstone National Park began culling the region’s wolf population. By 1926, the last gray wolf in the park had been killed, and not long after that, wolf sightings became a rarity in every part of the continental United States. The results were nothing short of disastrous for local ecosystems, particularly at Yellowstone.

Park officials supporting the removal of wolves from Yellowstone overlooked the key role predators play in any food web. In the least complex food web imaginable, insects feed off plants while birds eat insects. With the removal of all birds, insects can propagate unchecked, completely decimating available food sources. The same issue occurred at a wolfless Yellowstone, but as part of a larger, more complex food web.

Without wolves, the elk population at Yellowstone grew rapidly. In fact, part of the reason wolves were eliminated from the region, and the country at large, was to preserve more desirable animal populations, namely deer and elk. The Yellowstone elk enjoyed feeding on young aspen trees, which soon became all but extinct throughout the park.

The absence of predatory threat also saw elk and other herbivores gathering at rivers, drinking and eating vegetation along the banks without fear of attack. As vegetation was continuously removed from the riverbanks, water eroded the banks and the rivers widened. Suddenly, river-dwelling bird species had no place to build their nests.

Similarly, the lack of willow trees along the riverbanks prevented beavers from building their dams, resulting in the animal’s complete withdrawal from Yellowstone. As the rivers continued to widen, their temperatures climbed, completely changing the makeup and distribution of the fish species present.

The Endangered Species Act, passed in 1973, was a direct result of the actions taken against wolves and other predators earlier in the century. The gray wolf was listed as endangered in 1974, and recovery efforts began soon after, though Congress did not adequately fund the project until 1991. In 1995 and 1996, more than 30 Canadian gray wolves were moved into Yellowstone. Despite some public objections, reintroduction efforts went relatively smoothly, with far fewer livestock falling prey to wild wolves than anticipated.

Beginning in 2008, wolf populations throughout the United States were delisted from the endangered species list. Today, an estimated 528 wolves make their homes somewhere in the greater Yellowstone region, with nearly 100 living in the park itself. These wolves account for eight distinct packs. Unsurprisingly, the successful reintroduction of wolves into Yellowstone has had a direct impact on the park’s elk population: between 1995 and 2000, elk made up 50 percent of the typical wolf’s diet.

Of course, environmentalists and animal rights advocates cannot rest on their laurels in regard to wolves in Yellowstone. As recently as 2007, the park was home to approximately 171 wolves, but a decline among northern elk populations and human encroachment on wolf territory has nearly halved that number. In 2020, the gray wolf was fully removed from the endangered species list, but as history has shown, it very well may become endangered once again.